Special Interest Groups
- Explaining proliferation: why interest groups are common in the United States
- Many kinds of cleavage in the country
- Constitution makes for many access points
- Political parties are weak
- The birth of interest groups
- Periods of rapid growth
- Since 1960, 70 percent have established an office in Washington, D.C.
- 1770s, independence groups
- 1830s and 1840s, religious, antislavery groups
- 1860s, craft unions
- 1880s and 1890s, business associations
- 1900s and 1910, most major lobbies of today
- Factors explaining the rise of interest groups
- Broad economic developments create new interests
- Farmers produce cash crops
- Mass production industries begin
- Government policy itself
- Created veterans' groups--wars
- Encouraged formation of Farm Bureau
- Launched Chamber of Commerce
- Favored growth of unions
- Emergence of strong leaders, usually at certain times
- Expanding role of government
- Broad economic developments create new interests
- Periods of rapid growth
- Kinds of organizations
- Institutional interests
- Defined: individuals or organizations representing other organizations
- Types
- Businesses: example, General Motors
- Trade or governmental associations
- Concerns--bread-and-butter issues of concern to their clients
- Clearly defined, with homogeneous groups
- Diffuse, with diversified groups
- Other interests--governments, foundations, universities
- Membership interests
- Americans join some groups more frequently than people in other nations
- Social, business, and so on, same rate as elsewhere
- Unions, less likely to join
- Religious or civic groups, more likely to join
- Greater sense of efficacy and duty explains the tendency to join civic groups
- Most sympathizers do not join because
- Individuals not that significant
- Benefits flow to nonmembers too
- Americans join some groups more frequently than people in other nations
- Incentives to join
- Solidary incentives--pleasure, companionship (League of Women Voters, AARP, NAACP, Rotary, etc.)
- Material incentives--money, things, services (farm organizations, retired persons, etc.)
- Purpose of the organization itself--public-interest organizations
- Ideological interest groups' appeal is controversial principles
- Engage in research and bring lawsuits
- Influence of the staff
- Staff has most influence if members joined for solidary or material benefits
- National Council of Churches and unions are examples
- Institutional interests
- Interest groups and social movements
- Social movement is a widely shared demand for change
- Environmental movement
- Feminist movement: three kinds
- Solidary--LWV and others (widest support)
- Purposive--NOW, NARAL (strong position on divisive issues)
- Caucus--WEAL (material benefits)
- Union movement; left over after social movement dies
- Funds for interest groups
- Foundation grants
- Ford Foundation and public-interest groups
- Scaife foundations and conservative groups
- Federal grants and contracts
- National Alliance for Business and summer youth job programs
- Jesse Jackson's PUSH
- Direct mail
- Unique to modern interest groups through use of computers
- Common Cause a classic example
- Techniques
- Teaser
- Emotional arousal
- Celebrity endorsement
- Personalization of letter
- Foundation grants
- Problem of bias
- Reasons for belief in upper-class bias
- More affluent more likely to join
- Business or professional groups more numerous; better financed
- Why these facts do not decide the issue
- Describe inputs but not outputs
- Business groups often divided among themselves
- Important to ask what the bias is
- Many conflicts are within upper middle class
- Resource differentials are clues, not conclusions
- Reasons for belief in upper-class bias
- Activities of interest groups
- Information
- Single most important tactic
- Nonpolitical sources insufficient
- Provide detailed, current information
- Most effective on narrow, technical issues
- Officials also need cues; ratings systems
- Dissemination of information and cues via fax
- Single most important tactic
- Public support: rise of new politics
- Outsider strategy replacing insider strategy
- New strategy leads to controversy that politicians dislike
- Key targets: the undecided
- Some groups attack their likely allies to embarrass them
- Legislators sometimes buck public opinion, unless issue important
- Some groups try for grassroots support
- Saccharin issue
- "Dirty Dozen" environmental polluters
- Few large, well-funded interests are all-powerful (e.g., NRA)
- Money and PACs
- Money is least effective way to influence politicians
- Campaign finance reform law of 1973 had two effects
- Restricted amount interest groups can give to candidates
- Made it legal for corporations and unions to create PACs
- Rapid growth in PACs has not led to vote buying.
- More money is available on all sides
- Members of Congress take money but still decide how to vote
- Almost any organization can create a PAC.
- More than half of all PACs sponsored by corporations
- Recent increase in ideological PACs; one-third liberal, two-thirds conservative
- Ideological PACs raise more but spend less because of cost of raising money
- In 2000 unions and business organizations gave most
- Incumbents get most PAC money
- Business PACs split money between Democrats and Republicans
- Democrats get most PAC money
- PAC contributions small
- No evidence PAC money influences votes in Congress
- Most members vote their ideology
- When issue of little concern to voters, slight correlation but may be misleading
- PAC money may influence in other ways, such as access
- PAC money most likely to influence on client politics
- The revolving door
- Promise of future jobs to officials
- Few conspicuous examples of abuse
- Trouble
- Disruption always part of American politics
- Used by groups of varying ideologies
- Better accepted since 1960s
- History of proper persons using disruption: suffrage, civil rights, antiwar movements
- Officials dread no-win situation
- Information
- Regulating interest groups
- Protection by First Amendment
- 1946 law accomplished little in requiring registration
- 1995 lobby act enacted by Congress
- Broadens definition of a lobbyist
- Lobbyists must report twice annually
- Exempts grassroots organizations
- No enforcement organization created
- Significant restraints prior to 1995 still in effect
- Tax code: threat of losing tax exempt status
- Campaign finance laws