The Media
- Journalism in American political history
- The party press
- Parties created and subsidized various newspapers
- Circulation was small, newspapers expensive, advertisers few
- Newspapers circulated among political and commercial elites
- The popular press
- Changes in society and technology made the press self-supporting and able to reach mass readership.
- High-speed press
- Telegraph
- Associated Press, 1848; objective reporting
- Urbanization allowed large numbers to support paper
- Government Printing Office; end of subsidies in 1860
- Influence of publishers, editors created partisan bias
- "Yellow journalism" to attract readers
- Hearst foments war against Spain
- Emergence of a common national culture
- Changes in society and technology made the press self-supporting and able to reach mass readership.
- Magazines of opinion
- Middle class favors new, progressive periodicals
- Nation, Atlantic, Harper's in 1850s and 1860s on behalf of certain issues
- McClure's, Scribner's, Cosmopolitan later on
- Individual writers gain national followings through investigative reporting
- Number of competing newspapers declines, as does sensationalism
- Today the number of national magazines focusing on politics accounts for a small and declining fraction of magazines.
- Middle class favors new, progressive periodicals
- Electronic journalism
- Radio arrives in the 1920s, television in the 1940s
- Politicians could address voters directly but people could easily ignore them
- But fewer politicians could be covered
- President routinely covered
- Others must use bold tactics
- Recent rise in the talk show as a political forum has increased politicians' access to electronic media
- Big Three networks have made it harder for candidates by shortening sound bites
- But politicians have more sources: cable, early morning news, news magazine shows
- These new sources feature lengthy interviews
- No research on consequences of two changes:
- Recent access of politicians to electronic media
- "Narrowcasting," which targets segmented audiences
- Politicians continue to seek visuals even after they are elected
- The Internet
- Ultimate free market in political news
- Voters and political activists talk to one another
- The party press
- The structure of the media
- Degree of competition
- Newspapers
- Number of daily newspapers has declined significantly
- Number of cities with multiple papers has declined
- 60 percent of cities had competing newspapers in 1900
- Only 4 percent in 1972
- Newspaper circulation has fallen since 1967
- Most people now get most of their news from television
- Radio and television
- Intensely competitive, becoming more so
- Composed mostly of locally owned and managed enterprises, unlike Europe
- Orientation to local market
- Limitations by FCC; widespread ownership created
- Newspapers
- The national media
- Existence somewhat offsets local orientation
- Consists of
- Wire services
- National magazines
- Television networks
- Newspapers with national readerships
- Significance
- Washington officials follow it closely
- Reporters and editors different from the local press
- Better paid
- From more prestigious universities
- More liberal outlook
- Do investigative or interpretive stories
- Roles played
- Gatekeeper: what is news, for how long
- Auto safety
- Water pollution
- Prescription drugs
- Crime rates
- Scorekeeper: who is winning, losing
- Attention to Iowa, New Hampshire
- Gary Hart in 1984 and John McCain in 2000
- Watchdog: investigate personalities and expose scandals
- Hart's name, birth date, in 1984; Donna Rice in 1987
- Watergate (Woodward and Bernstein)
- Gatekeeper: what is news, for how long
- Degree of competition
- Rules governing the media
- Newspapers versus electronic media
- Newspapers almost entirely free from government regulation; prosecutions only after the fact and limited: libel, obscenity, incitement
- Radio and television licensed, regulated
- Confidentiality of sources
- Reporters want right to keep sources confidential
- Most states and federal government disagree
- Supreme Court allows government to compel reporters to divulge information in court if it bears on a crime
- Myron Farber jailed for contempt
- Police search of newspaper office upheld
- Regulating broadcasting
- FCC licensing
- Seven years for radio
- Five years for television
- Stations must serve "community needs"
- Public service, other aspects can be regulated
- Recent movement to deregulate
- License renewal by postcard
- No hearing unless opposed
- Relaxation of rule enforcement
- Radio broadcasting deregulated the most
- Telecommunications Act of 1996 permits one company to own as many as eight stations in large markets (five in smaller ones)
- Results:
- Few large companies now own most of the big-market radio stations
- Greater variety of opinion on radio
- Other radio and television regulations
- Equal time rule
- Right-of-reply rule
- Political editorializing rule
- Fairness doctrine was abolished in 1987
- FCC licensing
- Campaigning
- Equal time rule applies
- Equal access for all candidates
- Rates no higher than least expensive commercial rate
- Debates formerly had to include all candidates
- Reagan-Carter debate sponsored by LWV as a "news event"
- Now stations and networks can sponsor
- Efficiency in reaching voters
- Works well when market and district overlap
- Fails when they are not aligned
- More Senate than House candidates buy TV time
- Equal time rule applies
- Newspapers versus electronic media
- The effects of the media on politics
- Studies on media influence on elections
- Generally inconclusive, because of citizens'
- Selective attention
- Mental tune-out
- Products can be sold more easily than candidates
- Newspaper endorsements of candidates
- Often of Republicans locally, whereas of Democrats nationally
- But worth 5 percent of vote to endorsed Democrats
- Generally inconclusive, because of citizens'
- Major effect is on how politics is conducted, not how people vote
- Conventions scheduled to accommodate television coverage
- Candidates win party nomination via media exposure, for example, Estes Kefauver
- Issues established by media attention
- Environment
- Consumer issues
- Issues that are important to citizens similar to those in media
- TV influences political agenda
- But people less likely to take media cues on matters that affect them personally
- Newspaper readers see bigger candidate differences than do TV viewers
- TV news affects popularity of presidents; commentaries have short-term effect
- Studies on media influence on elections
- Government and the news
- Prominence of the president
- Theodore Roosevelt: systematic cultivation of the press
- Franklin Roosevelt: press secretary a major instrument for cultivating press
- Press secretary today: large staff, many functions
- White House press corps is the focus of press secretary
- Unparalleled personalization of government
- Coverage of Congress
- Never equal to that of president; members resentful
- House quite restrictive
- No cameras on the floor until 1978
- Sometimes refused to permit coverage of committees
- Gavel-to-gavel coverage of proceedings since 1979
- Senate more open
- Hearings since Kefauver; TV coverage of sessions in 1986
- Incubator for presidential contenders through committee hearings
- Prominence of the president
- Interpreting political news
- Are news stories slanted?
- Most people believe media, especially television, from which they get most news
- But the percentage that thinks the media is biased is increasing
- Press itself thinks it is unbiased
- Liberal bias of national media elite
- Various factors influence how stories are written
- Deadlines
- Audience attraction
- Fairness, truth imposed by professional norms
- Reporters' and editors' beliefs
- Types of stories
- Routine stories: public events regularly covered
- Reported similarly by all media; opinions of journalists have least effect
- Can be misreported: Tet offensive
- Selected stories: public but not routinely covered
- Selection involves perception of what is important
- Liberal and conservative papers do different stories
- Increasing in number; reflect views of press more than experts or public
- Insider stories: not usually made public; motive problem
- Routine stories: public events regularly covered
- Studies on effects of journalistic opinions
- Nuclear power: antinuclear slant
- School busing: probusing
- Media spin almost inevitable
- Insider stories raise questions of informant's motives
- From official background briefings of the past
- To critical inside stories of post-Watergate era
- Most people believe media, especially television, from which they get most news
- Why do we have so many news leaks?
- Constitution: separation of powers
- Power is decentralized
- Branches of government compete
- Not illegal to print most secrets
- Adversarial nature of the press since Watergate
- Press and politicians distrust each other
- Media are eager to embarrass officials
- Competition for awards
- Spurred by Irangate: arms for hostages
- Cynicism created era of attack journalism
- Most people do not like this kind of news
- Cynicism of media mirrors public's increasing cynicism of media
- People believe media slant coverage
- Public support for idea of licensing journalists or fines to discourage biased reporting
- Public confidence in big business down and now media are big business
- Drive for market share forces media to use theme of corruption
- Increased use of negative advertising
- Constitution: separation of powers
- Sensationalism in the media
- Prior to 1980, sexual escapades of political figures not reported
- Since 1980, sex and politics extensively covered
- Reasons for change
- Sensationalism gets attention in a market of intense competition.
- Sensational stories are often cheaper than expert analysis and/or investigation of stories about policy or substantive issues.
- Journalists have become distrusting adversaries of government.
- Journalists are much more likely to rely on unnamed sources today and, as a result, are more easily manipulated.
- Impact of September 11
- Public interest in national news
- Greater confidence and trust in news organizations
- Government constraints on journalists
- Reporters must strike a balance between
- Expression of views
- Retaining sources
- Abundance of congressional staffers makes it easier
- Governmental tools to fight back
- Numerous press officers
- Press releases, canned news
- Leaks and background stories to favorites
- Bypass national press for local
- Presidential rewards and punishments for reporters based on their stories
- Reporters must strike a balance between
- Are news stories slanted?